Since you’re reading this, you probably know Lua, the world’s most infuriating language. If not, hop on to Lua in 15 minutes to get the basics right. Now there are two types of use cases where Lua shines – as a tiny script/configuration language, and for high-performance data processing (with JIT). I went through both of them with kresd, and wrote down some notes.
So what’s it all about?
There is a well written book Programming in Lua that covers everything from the syntax to C/Lua interfacing. If you’re starting with Lua, chances are you’re going to use it very often as a reference. I’m just going to sum up the basics real quick.
Any Lua flavour will do for now, you can pick from eLua for embedded, vanilla interpreter Lua or LuaJIT. All of them compile quickly to a small (static or shared) library. Vanilla is about 200K, LuaJIT takes about twice as much. I’d recommend to start with LuaJIT right off the bat, especially if you have plans for accessing C world from Lua. Installation is a cinch, it’s refreshing when a project uses just plain old Makefiles:
$ make && sudo make install
Let’s make an small C application to initialize the VM and read out a couple values.
#include <stdio.h>
#include <lua.h>
#include <lualib.h>
#include <lauxlib.h>
/* Convenience stuff */
static void close_state(lua_State **L) { lua_close(*L); }
#define cleanup(x) __attribute__((cleanup(x)))
#define auto_lclose cleanup(close_state)
int main(int argc, char *argv[])
{
/* Create VM state */
auto_lclose lua_State *L = luaL_newstate();
if (!L)
return 1;
luaL_openlibs(L); /* Open standard libraries */
/* Load config file */
if (argc > 1) {
luaL_loadfile(L, argv[1]); /* (1) */
int ret = lua_pcall(L, 0, 0, 0);
if (ret != 0) {
fprintf(stderr, "%s\n", lua_tostring(L, -1));
return 1;
}
}
/* Read out config */
lua_getglobal(L, "address"); /* (2) */
lua_getglobal(L, "port");
printf("address: %s, port: %ld\n", /* (3) */
lua_tostring(L, -2), lua_tointeger(L, -1));
lua_settop(L, 0); /* (4) */
return 0;
}
There are four basic interactions with the Lua world that you can see here:
(1) is calling Lua to execute a chunk of code
(2) getting Lua values on Lua stack
(3) reading out Lua values from Lua stack
(4) stack manipulation (clear the stack)
Let’s go straight for the test phase.
Don’t forget to add -pagezero_size 10000 -image_base 100000000 for LuaJIT on OS X, see section “Embedding LuaJIT”).
$ cc ldhcp-ex1.c $(pkg-config --cflags --libs luajit) -lm -ldl
$ cat test.lua
address = '255.255.255.255'
port = 67
$ ./a.out test.lua
address: 255.255.255.255, port: 67
Mission All Clear. It reads our configuration with just a few lines of code.
The Lua stack is the difficult bit to wrap your head around first, but it boils down to this: stack top, the last pushed value, is always at index -1. If we push something, it becomes the new stack top. If we call a function, it consumes the values from the top of the stack, and the existing elements become arguments (or upvalues). Once again – pushed values are indexed with negative, function arguments with positive numbers.
If you’re still not sure how this works, have a look at another “embedding example” guide, or play around a little bit with it. Here are links that you might find useful:
- Lua users tutorials – various examples and code snippets, three stars out of five.
- Lua reference – well put together API reference for both Lua and Lua/C APIs, four and a half stars.
Extending C application with Lua
Gists for this section:
You can call functions in the same way as you interact with variables. Now that you’ve mastered the stack, your first idea would be to do something like this:
static int on_recv(lua_State *L, char *buf, size_t len)
{
lua_getglobal(L, "callback");
lua_pushlstring(L, buf, len); /* Binary strings are okay */
int ret = lua_pcall(L, 1, 1, 0); /* 1 argument, 1 result */
printf("ret: %d, buflen: %ld\n", ret, lua_tointeger(L, -1));
lua_pop(L, 1);
return ret;
}
...
/* Call a callback for mock datagram. */
char buf[512] = { 0x05, 'h', 'e', 'l', 'l', 'o' };
on_recv(L, buf, sizeof(buf));
Let’s try it out with a simple function that returns the length of the argument.
$ cat test.lua
function callback(buf)
return #buf
end
$ ./luatest test.lua
address: 255.255.255.255, port: 67
ret: 0, buflen: 512
At this point, you should start to be worried about the tiny inefficiencies. Looking up globals is relatively expensive, we can have look later how much. For now you should just know that Lua has a fast registry for storing values.
static int on_recv(lua_State *L, int cb_ref, char *buf, size_t len)
{
lua_rawgeti(L, LUA_REGISTRYINDEX, cb_ref);
lua_pushlstring(L, buf, len);
int ret = lua_pcall(L, 1, 1, 0);
printf("ret: %d, buflen: %ld\n", ret, lua_tointeger(L, -1));
lua_pop(L, 1);
return ret;
}
...
lua_getglobal(L, "callback");
int cb_ref = luaL_ref(L, LUA_REGISTRYINDEX);
on_recv(L, cb_ref, buf, sizeof(buf));
This is especially helpful if you call the function repeatedly.
Extending Lua code with C
Gists for this section:
Our previous example has one problem, it has no purpose. So we’ll give it one, we’re going to write a tiny DHCP server. DHCP is one of the Internet’s most boring and yet widely used protocols whose purpose is to assign IP addresses to clients.
The messages in DHCP are binary. Strings in Lua are immutable, so we can’t just fiddle with random bytes in the packet, but we’re going to call the C functions to do it for us. There are two ways to call into C – Lua/C interface, and the LuaJIT FFI. The former is okay, the latter rocks.
The metatables provide enough sugar coating, so that our C userdata looks like a regular Lua object.
/* Get/set opcode */
static int msg_op(lua_State *L)
{
char *msg = lua_touserdata(L, 1);
if (lua_isnumber(L, 2)) {
msg[0] = lua_tointeger(L, 2) & 0xFF;
}
lua_pushnumber(L, msg[0]);
return 1;
}
/* Register 'msg' meta table */
static int msg_register(lua_State *L)
{
static const luaL_Reg wrap[] = {
{ "op", &msg_op },
{ NULL, NULL }
};
luaL_newmetatable(L, "msg");
lua_pushvalue(L, -1);
lua_setfield(L, -2, "__index");
luaL_openlib(L, NULL, wrap, 0);
lua_pop(L, 1);
return 0;
}
...
/* Create VM state */
auto_lclose lua_State *L = luaL_newstate();
if (!L)
return 1;
luaL_openlibs(L); /* Open standard libraries */
msg_register(L); /* Register 'msg' meta */
You can then apply the metatable to provided C userdata argument.
static int on_recv(lua_State *L, int cb_ref, char *buf, size_t len)
{
lua_rawgeti(L, LUA_REGISTRYINDEX, cb_ref);
lua_pushlightuserdata(L, buf);
luaL_getmetatable(L, "msg");
lua_setmetatable(L, -2);
return lua_pcall(L, 1, 1, 0);
}
From now, you can call the methods on the buf object from the Lua world, as if it was native.
function callback(buf)
print(buf:op())
return 0
end
I have extended this example with methods to access YIADDR and CHADDR fields in a DHCP message, so we have something tangible to work with. CHADDR is client’s hardware address,and YIADDR the address we’re going to lease. You can find the whole code in this gist.
With this we can write server logic in Lua now. Let’s say we want to remember existing leases, and provide new clients. We also want to do some ACLs on client’s address, just because Lua is fun.
address = '255.255.255.0'
port = 67
-- Only allow hwaddr with these prefixes
local allowed_prefix = { '', '\5\3' }
local function acl(hwaddr)
for i,v in ipairs(allowed_prefix) do
if hwaddr:sub(0, #v) == v then
return true
end
end
return false
end
-- Flip some bits in the buffer and return length
local lease = {}
function callback(buf, len)
if buf:op() == 0x01 then -- DHCPDISCOVER
buf:op(2) -- DHCPOFFER
local hwaddr = buf:chaddr()
if not acl(hwaddr) then return 0 end
local client_ip = lease[hwaddr]
if client_ip then -- keep leased addr
buf:yiaddr(client_ip)
else -- stub address range (:
client_ip = '192.168.1.1'
buf:yiaddr(client_ip)
lease[hwaddr] = client_ip
end
end
return len
end
That’s a pretty straightforward piece of code – few branches, and a short loop. local variables placed where possible, one small transgression is the overuse of metatables to keep the code short. Let’s put it under a very crude benchmark with a loop of 1000000 packets to see how it goes.
$ time ./luatest test.lua
real 0m1.274s
Napkin calculations tell me this is “okay quick”, but nowhere near the C speed.
It’s feels slow, what should I do?
The bad news is that idiomatic code may or may not be predictably fast, unlike in the compiled languages, and that makes Lua sometimes infuriating. Alas “engineering” in the software engineering is about understanding “what’s going on”, and the good news is that the LuaJIT has excellent facilities to assist you with this quest. Usually, there is something preventing trace compilation or excessive garbage collection.
First thing you can do is to disable JIT and observe.
$ echo "jit.off()" >> test.lua
$ time ./luatest test.lua
real 0m0.603s
Wow, that’s roughly half the time it took with JIT enabled. There are two diagnostic tools available – jit.v and jit.dump. I’m going to start with the first one, as the latter one falls into “profiling” in my mind. Notice that it’s already churning close to 1.5M calls per second in the interpreted mode.
Tracing the tracer
Gists for this section:
Module jit.v is able to print events happening in the JIT to either a file or stdout. It reports trace aborts, transitions or any other roadblocks to that toasty compiled traces. You can enable it with a simple require('jit.v').start().
First re-enable the JIT that we turned off, and restart in verbose mode.
$ echo "require('jit.v').start()" >> test.lua
$ time ./luatest test.lua
[TRACE flush]
[TRACE flush]
[TRACE flush]
[TRACE flush]
[TRACE flush]
... bazillion times ...
That’s a lot of trace cache flushes, and hence reason why it’s so slow. It also happens somewhere out of Lua scope, so it must be in our C code. The problem here is that we set metatables to userdata objects in C, thus forcing the JIT to flush the code cache. Another common problem is doing NYI operations which cause trace aborts. This is especially costly, as the tracer does a lot of work in background which never comes to fruition.
Now we’re left with two choices, either rewrite our C API without metatables – e.g. buf:op() would become dhcp.op(buf), or rewrite it using LuaJIT FFI. First choice is portable between different Lua flavours, but Lua/C calls would still abort traces (as they’re NYI). The second choice locks us to LuaJIT unfortunately. Since this is a tutorial, I’m going to show you how to rewrite the current bindings using FFI.
A short note on portability – Lua usually isn’t backwards-compatible between minor versions. If you need to target multiple versions, you usually end up with an #ifdef boilerplate. LuaJIT targets 5.1 ABI with several extensions. For example, 5.2 introduced proper scoping, that changes a way of doing sandboxing.
FFI bindings to your C code
Gists for this section:
The idea behind FFI is to get rid of the Lua/C boilerplate code and describe your datastructures and function signatures in a mix of C definitions and Lua. The C part could look like this.
local ffi = require('ffi')
ffi.cdef[[
/* DHCP header format */
struct __attribute__((packed)) dhcp_msg {
uint8_t op; /* Header */
uint8_t htype;
uint8_t hlen;
uint8_t hops;
uint32_t xid;
uint16_t secs;
uint16_t flags; /* Address fields */
char _ciaddr[4], _yiaddr[4], _siaddr[4], _giaddr[4];
char _chaddr[16];
};
/* Constants */
struct dhcp_op {
static const int DISCOVER = 0x01;
static const int OFFER = 0x02;
};
/* C functions */
void yiaddr_set(char *msg, const char *yiaddr);
]]
This describes the structure of the packet, constants and a C function signature. Notice how FFI describes constants/enums using a structure with static const integers, compared to idiomatic C enum { ... }.
Now we can cast the C string buffer (in form of Lua light userdata) to the structure type.
local msg = ffi.cast('struct dhcp_msg *', buf)
print(msg.htype)
LuaJIT can also assign metatables to C types, we can use this to give the messages nicely wrapped operations. They’re also compiled, so it’s very very cheap.
local dhcp_msg_t = ffi.typeof('struct dhcp_msg')
ffi.metatype( dhcp_msg_t, {
__index = {
yiaddr = function(msg, addr)
ffi.C.yiaddr_set(msg, addr)
end,
},
})
local msg = ffi.cast('struct dhcp_msg *', buf)
print(msg:chaddr('192.168.1.1'))
The ffi.C points to global C namespace, kind of like dlsym(RTLD_DEFAULT). You can however call to other libraries using ffi.open(), see the FFI Tutorial, section “Accessing the zlib Compression Library”.
We have created three files, one is our C application, the second is a Lua module with FFI bindings, and finally our userscript. I have created snippets for all three, so you can have a look at them and get it ready for the test.
Inspecting traces for profit
$ time ./luatest test.lua
real 0m1.064s
That looks faster than the previous run with the JIT on, but it’s still slow. Let’s start with verbose mode to see what’s wrong.
[TRACE --- test.lua:8 -- leaving loop in root trace at test.lua:13]
for i,v in ipairs(allowed_prefix) do
Oh. It looks like that in Lua 2.1 ipairs() is already compiled, but the short loop is causing aborts. To investigate closer, we can load the jit.dump module to show us traces, IR and compiler events. Here’s a comment on all available options.
Since the log can be rather large, we can choose to print it to a separate file instead of stdout. Generally, this is what you’re going to do to inspect traces.
$ echo "require('jit.dump').start('bsx', 'jit.log')" >> test.lua
$ time ./luatest test.lua
real 0m1.064s
$ less jit.log
...
---- TRACE 4 start test.lua:7
0001 GGET 1 0 ; "ipairs"
0002 UGET 2 0 ; allowed_prefix
0003 CALL 1 4 2
0000 . FUNCC ; ipairs
0004 JMP 4 => 0014
0014 ITERC 4 3 3
0000 . FUNCC ; ipairs_aux
0015 JITERL 4 1
---- TRACE 4 abort test.lua:9 -- inner loop in root trace
I’m not entirely sure why this aborts here. I suspect it’s because of the ipairs() iteration with ITERC over a very short loop (2 items). Let’s see if we can help it by rewriting it to simple for loop (1). Another thing we can do, is to get rid of the return in the loop body using break (2), so that the function never ends inside the loop.
local function acl(hwaddr)
local ret = false
for i = 1, #allowed_prefix do -- (1)
local v = allowed_prefix[i]
if hwaddr:sub(0, #v) == v then
ret = true
break -- (2)
end
end
return ret
end
And try it again.
$ time ./luatest test.lua
real 0m0.135s
This is an order of magnitude faster, and jit.dump shows that it succeeded to find a trace for the whole callback. Usually there are a few aborted traces before it finds it, it’s nothing to worry about.
Note – Branches are not allowed in traces, so the compiler deals with it by spawning side traces. The LuaJIT performance guide states, that highly biased branches are okay, as the most likely branch is going to get compiled in the root trace. However here we can’t presume anything about the branching. Have a look at the “Tracing JITs and modern CPUs part 3” for more information.
Since we’re close to the 8M callbacks/s figure, we can have a look at the profile to fine tune the remaining slowdowns.
Finding hotspots with LuaJIT profiler
Mike Pall introduced the sampling profiler for the 2.1, which I highly recommend for the performance improvements only. The sampling rate is configurable and it’s really quick. Let’s have a look at it first.
$ echo "require('jit.p').start('vl')" >> test.lua
$ ./luatest test.lua
80% Compiled
-- 50% dhcp.lua:35
-- 38% test.lua:9
-- 13% test.lua:21
20% C code
-- 100% test.lua:21
The option v stands for “show VM states”, in this case “Compiled” or “C code”, and l for per-line dumps. Now we know that approximately 80% of the time is spent in compiled traces and 20% in C callbacks. Since it’s sampling our already short callbacks, it may not be accurate. We can improve the resolution of the sampling with an i option.
$ echo "require('jit.p').start('vli1')" >> test.lua
$ ./luatest test.lua
76% Compiled
-- 42% test.lua:9
-- 31% dhcp.lua:35
-- 15% test.lua:21
-- 8% test.lua:22
-- 4% dhcp.lua:53
18% C code
-- 100% test.lua:21
6% Interpreted
-- 100% test.lua:21
It looks that the message type conversion (test.lua:21) took some time to compile, the other is looping. Nothing stands out. We could probably unroll the loop since it’s short, or rewrite the yiaddr_set in Lua, so it could be inlined. But that wouldn’t help it dramatically. We’re closing to the limit of pcall() / sec.
Breaking the ceiling
The pcall() / sec overhead is going to be the limit if you use C to Lua callbacks. On my computer it’s about 50ns, that’s a budget for 20 million empty calls per second. To give it some sense of scale, framing rate of 10GbE is 14.88M pps. Multithreaded web servers clock up to several millions of requests per second with pipelining. Typical single-threaded UDP daemons do less than that.
While that is not a C call speed, it’s competitive. After all, performance is about squeezing in a time budget required for the job. That time budget is different for numerical simulations, where the cost of C/Lua call would dominate. More so, the JIT can’t cross the pcall() boundary, so the trace can be only as long as one single callback.
The only way to break this limit is moving the event loop to Lua, and call back to helper functions in C. Sort of the other way round. This is how the C event loop could be rewritten in Lua:
local len = 512
local buf = ffi.new('char[?]', len)
local dhcp_req = dhcp.msg_t(buf)
for i = 1, 1000000 do
dhcp_req.op = dhcp.op.DISCOVER
len = callback(buf, len)
end
Running it is indeed twice as fast, the JIT was able to compile the whole loop without any resumes, in or out. The downside is that it’s not always possible to rewrite the C event loop due to an already existing code base, specific networking, or custom memory management.
On garbage collection
Lua is a garbage collected language. I realize that’s a blow for a diehard C programmer whose manual memory management is infallible. I’m not going to argue pros and cons here, but the thing is that a lot of people take the tedious malloc / free for an efficient memory management for some reason. In real world, the GC hasn’t been an issue, at least for me (performance-wise). In addition, it offers some tweaks for time-constrained applications, even though the documentation describes the options somewhat vaguely:
“The step multiplier controls the relative speed of the collector relative to memory allocation.”
The only time I increased the step size was, when the default GC speed couldn’t keep up with the high packet rate, but it can also be that the code generated too much unnecessary garbage.
Further tips
This about covers the process of embedding LuaJIT in your C application. We went from zero to stub server doing 8 million callbacks per second, and peeked at the additional performance improvements. I sure hope it dispelled the worries about embedding a scripting language. A general tip is to watch the LuaJIT mailing list for hidden gems and solutions. I tried to reference several of those in this article, but I’m sure something has eluded me.
I also hope that this might help to attract more people to LuaJIT. Mike Pall, the author, has announced plans to reduce his engagement in the project. While it is healthy and in good hands, it would be awesome if it kept the momentum. The Gotham still needs its hero.
Further tips and follow-ups: